Preventing cryptosporidiosis: the need for safe drinking water

April 2, 2013 · 1 comment

Preventing cryptosporidiosis: the need for safe drinking water. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, April 2013.

Rachel Peletz a, Thomas Mahin b, Mark Elliott c, Margaret Montgomery d & Thomas Clasen a

a. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, England.
b. Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection, Boston, United States of America (USA).
c. University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, USA.
d. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.

Correspondence to Rachel Peletz (e-mail: RachelPeletz@gmail.com).

Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2013;91:238. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.2471/BLT.13.119990

Abstract

Cryptosporidium is one of the most widespread intestinal parasites and a common cause of severe diarrhoea in immunocompromised people and young children. Cryptosporidium can be found in surface and groundwater sources susceptible to flooding or faecal contamination, and may be present in piped “improved” drinking water systems that use these water sources. Opportunistic infections with Cryptosporidium can cause cryptosporidiosis, a potentially severe and life-threatening illness.

Cryptosporidiosis was one of the defining illnesses for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) before the discovery of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). In 1993 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, a Cryptosporidium outbreak resulted in 400 000 infections and 50 deaths. A review of 46 studies of chronic diarrhoea in people living with HIV in low-resource settings identified Cryptosporidium as the most common waterborne pathogen associated with chronic diarrhoea and its increased risk of mortality. Most cases of HIV are in sub-Saharan Africa, the region that ranks last in sanitation coverage and next to last in safe drinking water coverage.

Physico-chemical and Escherichia coli assessment of selected sachet water

April 2, 2013 · 0 comments

Physico-chemical and Escherichia coli assessment of selected sachet water produced in some areas of Minna, Niger State, Nigeria. Int. J. Water Res. Environ. Eng. Feb 2013.

M. M. Ndamit, et al.

Access to good quality drinking water in Minna and, indeed, other parts of Niger State is one of the biggest challenges to many households which have, for years, depended on other sources of water to augment the erratic supply made by the government. In an effort to ensure adequate supply, packaged water has been introduced to provide safe, hygienic and affordable drinking water. However, trends have implicated some packaged water as agents of disease transmission. In this work, the physicochemical and coliform analyses of selected packaged water, otherwise called “pure water” were carried out. Ten brands were collected from the packaging factories (5 samples per brand) and were analysed weekly for four weeks. Results obtained were compared with WHO and EPA standards for drinking and recreational water.

Their pH values, except for Sabo Best (6.26 ± 0.02), were within the stated WHO/EPA standards (6.50 -8.50). The coliform levels of FUTMin (75.00 ± 2.00), Happy Days (75.00 ± 2.00) and Carry More (23.33 ± 0.33), based on the most probable number (MPN), were unfit for potability since they could also contain other microorganisms implicated in gastro-intestinal water borne diseases. The respective 1.63 ± 0.10 and 1.54 ± 0.10 mg/dm3 for Evershine and Supreme waters were above the 0.3 mg/dm3 iron standard just as the respective copper and nitrate values of 1.19 ± 0.14, 1.27 ± 0.10, 1.48 ± 0.10 and 86.81 ± 0.62, 124.47 ± 1.36, 141.70 ± 0.00 mg/dm3 for Golden Age, Supreme and Sabo Best were higher than the respective 1 and 50 mg/dm3 standards for copper and nitrates. All other parameters were within the EPA and WHO values.

Application of Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment to analyze the public health risk from poor drinking water quality

March 26, 2013 · 0 comments

Application of Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment to analyze the public health risk from poor drinking water quality in a low income area in Accra, Ghana. Science of The Total Environment, Volume 449, 1 April 2013, Pages 134–142

E. Machdara, et al.

In Accra, Ghana, a majority of inhabitants lives in over-crowded areas with limited access to piped water supply, which is often also intermittent. This study assessed in a densely populated area the risk from microbial contamination of various sources of drinking water, by conducting a Quantitative Microbiological Risk Assessment (QMRA) to estimate the risk to human health from microorganism exposure and dose–response relationships. Furthermore the cost-effectiveness in reducing the disease burden through targeted interventions was evaluated. Five risk pathways for drinking water were identified through a survey (110 families), namely household storage, private yard taps, communal taps, communal wells and water sachets.

Samples from each source were analyzed for Escherichia coli and Ascaris contamination. Published ratios between E. coli and other pathogens were used for the QMRA and disease burden calculations. The major part of the burden of disease originated from E. coli O157:H7 (78%) and the least important contributor was Cryptosporidium (0.01%). Other pathogens contributed 16% (Campylobacter), 5% (Rotavirus) and 0.3% (Ascaris). The sum of the disease burden of these pathogens was 0.5 DALYs per person per year, which is much higher than the WHO reference level.

The major contamination pathway was found to be household storage. Disinfection of water at household level was the most cost-effective intervention (< 5 USD/DALY-averted) together with hygiene education. Water supply network improvements were significantly less cost-effective.

Current practices in manufacturing locally-made ceramic pot filters

March 26, 2013 · 0 comments

Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development Vol 3 No 2 pp 252–261 2013 doi:10.2166/washdev.2013.178

Current practices in manufacturing locally-made ceramic pot filters for water treatment in developing countries

Justine Rayner, Brian Skinner and Daniele Lantagne

2315 9th Ave, Apt 6, Oakland, CA 94606, USA E-mail: jsrayners@yahoo.com
Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK
Tufts University, 200 College Avenue, Boston, MA, 02155, USA

ABSTRACT
Locally produced ceramic pot filters have been shown to improve the microbiological quality of household drinking water and reduce the burden of diarrheal disease in users. They are considered one of the most promising household water treatment methods. However, overarching manufacturing and quality control guidelines do not exist for the 35 decentralized filter factories in 18 countries that currently produce filters. In this study, we conducted manufacturing process surveys with 25 filter factories worldwide to document production methods and identify areas where manufacturing and quality control guidelines are needed.

Our results show that manufacturing processes vary widely both between and within factories, including the consistency of materials, manufacturing methods, and quality control practices. These variations pose concerns about the consistency and quality of locally produced filters in the absence of standardized quality control procedures. We propose areas where manufacturing guidelines are needed to assist factories in producing consistently high quality filters, and identify topics where further research is needed to refine manufacturing recommendations. These results guided the development of a best practice manual that described consensus-based recommendations to advance consistent, quality-controlled filter production world-wide.

Risk factor analysis of diarrhoeal disease incidence in faecal sludge-applying farmers’ households

March 26, 2013 · 0 comments

Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development Vol 3 No 2 pp 134–143 2013 doi:10.2166/washdev.2013.042

Risk factor analysis of diarrhoeal disease incidence in faecal sludge-applying farmers’ households in Tamale, Ghana

Razak Seidu, Owe Löfman, Pay Drechsel and Thor Axel Stenström

Department of Mathematical Sciences and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Postboks 5003, N-1432 Ås, Norway E-mail: razaks@umb.no
International Water Management Institute, P.O. Box 2075, Colombo, Sri-Lanka
Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, 171 82 Solna, Sweden and Stockholm Environment Institute, Kräftriket 2B, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden

ABSTRACT
This study assesses the effect of risk factors and their inter-related mediation on diarrhoeal disease incidence in households applying faecal sludge in agricultural fields in Tamale, Ghana. Risk factors were assigned to three inter-related blocks: distal socio-economic, proximal public and domestic domains. The study involved 1,431 individuals living in 165 faecal sludge-applying households followed bi-weekly for 12 months. The incidence rate of diarrhoeal disease in the sludge-applying households was 1.09 (95% CI: 0.78–1.23) diarrhoeal episodes per person year at risk. Risk factors for diarrhoeal disease transmission in the public domain included sludge drying time (population attributable fraction (PAF) of 6%) and distance covered to collect water (PAF = 18%). The main distal socio-economic risk factor was wealth status (PAF = 15%).

In the domestic domain, the risk factor significantly associated with diarrhoeal disease transmission was, not washing hands with soap after defecation (PAF = 18%). About 17% of the effect of sludge drying time (including distance to water facilities) was mediated by the domestic domain risk factors. The study recommends risk management strategies in sludge-applying households that address public and domestic domain risk factors in addition to specific farm level interventions.

Does sense of ownership matter for rural water system sustainability?

March 26, 2013 · 0 comments

Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development Vol 3 No 2 pp 122–133 2013 doi:10.2166/washdev.2013.098

Does sense of ownership matter for rural water system sustainability? Evidence from Kenya

Sara J. Marks, Kyle Onda and Jennifer Davis

Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, CA 94305-4020, USA E-mail: jennadavis@stanford.edu
Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, CA 94305-4205, USA

ABSTRACT
Community sense of ownership for rural water infrastructure is widely cited as a key factor in ensuring sustainable service delivery, but no empirical investigation has evaluated the relationship between sense of ownership and sustainability outcomes. This study examines the association between system sustainability and sense of ownership among households and water committees, using primary data collected throughout 50 rural communities with piped water systems in Kenya.

Data sources include in-person interviews with 1,916 households, 312 water committee members and 50 system operators, as well as technical assessments of water systems. Using principal components analysis we create composite measures of system sustainability (infrastructure condition, users’ confidence, and ongoing management), and of water committees’ and households’ sense of ownership for the system. All else held constant, infrastructure condition is positively associated with water committee members’ sense of ownership, whereas users’ confidence and system management are positively associated with households’ sense of ownership.

These findings stand in contrast with much of the published literature on rural water planning, which assumes homogeneity of ownership feelings across all members of a community and which suggests a consistent and positive association between households’ sense of ownership and sustainability.

April 12, 2013 – Workshop on the Toolkit for monitoring and evaluating household water treatment and safe storage programmes

March 26, 2013 · 0 comments

Workshop on the Toolkit for monitoring and evaluating household water treatment and safe storage programmes, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia – April 12, 2012

Join the World Health Organization, UNICEF, and the Water Institute at the University of North Carolina for an introductory workshop on the basics of a new “Toolkit for monitoring and evaluating household water treatment and safe storage programmes”, published in 2012. This session will take place on Friday 12 April, 2013 from 13:30-16:30 hrs.

Household water treatment and safe storage (HWTS) methods, when used effectively and consistently, can reduce the burden of diarrhoeal disease by improving and maintaining the quality of household drinking water through safe collection, transport, handling, treatment, and storage practices. The toolkit provides a set of tools and indicators to assist in monitoring & evaluation (M&E), and ensure that the full health impact potential of HWTS can be achieved.

The three-hour session will emphasise active audience participation and provide an opportunity to practice and appreciate the challenges of M&E for HWTS. There is no fee for registration however there are a limited number of spaces so be sure to register here to secure your spot!

Safe water and solar cookers

March 20, 2013 · 0 comments

This newsletter has an interesting article on safe water and solar cookers.

Solar Cooker Review – March 2013

In this issue 

  • Safe Water and Solar Cookers
  • Solar vs Biomass Stoves
  • George Clooney Part II
  • ETHOS
  • News You Send
  • Solar Tech Talk (and A Cautionary Tale)
  • Calendar of Events
  • Annual Report

Solar Cooker Review Wiki

Sanitary, economic and environmental impacts of Solvatten

March 19, 2013 · 0 comments

Sanitary, economic and environmental impacts of Solvatten in the West African rural context: case of the rural municipality of Dialakorodji (Mali), 2012.

By Dr. Bécaye Sidy DIOP, Water, Sanitation and Environment Expert. Lecturer in the Institute of Environmental Sciences at University of Dakar, Senegal.

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Towards the Millennium Development Goals achievement, Mali is committed to reduce, between 2005 and 2015, the proportion of its population without access to safe drinking water.

Dialakorodji is a municipality located in the close vicinity of Bamako, the capital of Mali with 49% of its 45,740 inhabitants who does not have access to safe drinking water. Beside the high demand (3.8 liters / person / day), due to the intense heat that prevails, to find potable drinking water is a heavy burden for women. They spend up to two hours per day fetching water for their family. Water is mostly drawn from traditional contaminated wells or ponds. In addition, the containers used to take the water from the source to the point of use are barely covered. Residential water treatment is uncommon, so the risks of contamination are very high. This predicament leads to a strong presence of diarrheal diseases particularly for children. Thus, during the three months preceding the study, nearly 27% of children under 5 years have contracted diarrhea.

The living standard of Dialakorodji population leads 98% of them to use firewood and charcoal for cooking and warming water (including drinking water disinfection). The use of firewood as source of energy causes a triple negative consequences in terms of (i) deforestation, (ii) emission of greenhouse gases and (iii) respiratory diseases related to smoke and gases during the combustion.

The Solvatten introduction in 230 households of Dialakorodji helped to overcome the lack of safe drinking water and the abusive use of firewood and charcoal:

  • In relation with health, we noticed a reduction of the prevalence of diarrheal disease from27% to 11.6% among children under 5 years old, however no recall period was indicated. Moreover, Solvatten reduces the exposure to smokes and gases from firewood and charcoal, as well as a significant reduction of firewood and charcoal consumption;
  • On the economy side, significant savings have been reported by households: 7.8 US$/month on the “energy” budget and 8 US $ per month on health expenses;
  • In relation with the impact on environment, there is a reduction of 0.5kg firewood/household/day and 0.9kg charcoal/household/day in their use, which has been of real impact on the environment as well as the global warming by avoiding emission of 2080 kg CO2 eq /Solvatten unit/year.

However, the daily volume of water produced by the only Solvatten unit can be enhanced with the use of bigger tanks. Indeed, the water produced is not enough because of the size of households (average of 10 persons). In addition, the traditional values promote sharing with everyone. Solvatten unit should also be provided to each wife instead of the approach by family because of the polygamy status in most them.

Pesticide management and their residues in sediments and surface and drinking water

March 19, 2013 · 0 comments

Sci Total Environ. 2013 Mar 11;452-453C:28-39

Pesticide management and their residues in sediments and surface and drinking water in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam.

Toan PV, Sebesvari Z, Bläsing M, Rosendahl I, Renaud FG. United Nations University, Institute for Environment and Human Security (UNU-EHS), Hermann-Ehlers-Str. 10, 53113, Bonn, Germany; Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Environment and Natural Resources, Can Tho University, 3/2 street, Can Tho City, Viet Nam.

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Public concern in Vietnam is increasing with respect to pesticide pollution of the environment and of drinking water resources. While established monitoring programs in the Mekong Delta (MD) focus on the analysis of organochlorines and some organophosphates, the environmental concentrations of more recently used pesticides such as carbamates, pyrethroides, and triazoles are not monitored. In the present study, household level pesticide use and management was therefore surveyed and combined with a one year environmental monitoring program of thirteen relevant pesticides (buprofezin, butachlor, cypermethrin, α-endosulfan, β-endosulfan, endosulfan-sulfate, fenobucarb, fipronil, isoprothiolane, pretilachlor, profenofos, propanil, and propiconazole) in surface water, soil, and sediment samples.

The surveys showed that household level pesticide management remains suboptimal in the Mekong Delta. As a consequence, a wide range of pesticide residues were present in water, soil, and sediments throughout the monitoring period. Maximum concentrations recorded were up to 11.24μgl-1 in water for isoprothiolane and up to 521μgkg-1dm in sediment for buprofezin. Annual average concentrations ranged up to 3.34μgl-1 in water and up to 135μgkg-1dm in sediment, both for isoprothiolane.

Occurrence of pesticides in the environment throughout the year and co-occurrence of several pesticides in the samples indicate a considerable chronic exposure of biota and humans to pesticides. This has a high relevance in the delta as water for drinking is often extracted from canals and rivers by rural households (GSO, 2005, and own surveys). The treatment used by the households for preparing surface water prior to consumption (flocculation followed by boiling) is insufficient for the removal of the studied pesticides and boiling can actually increase the concentration of non-volatile pollutants.

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