Manufacture of a low-cost ceramic microporous filter

February 26, 2013 · 0 comments

Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development Vol 3 No 1 pp 42–50, 2013 doi:10.2166/washdev.2013.110

Manufacture of a low-cost ceramic microporous filter for the elimination of microorganisms causing common diseases

J. J. Simonis and A. K. Basson

Department of Hydrology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, P Bag X1001, KwaDlangezwa, 3886, South Africa E-mail: jsimonis@pan.uzulu.ac.za
Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa

Africa is one of the most water-scarce continents on earth and the lack of potable water is responsible for the death of approximately 4,900 children every day. An effective way of making sure that water is of good quality is by decontaminating it by means of a household ceramic water filter. The low-cost water filters suitable for the removal of suspended solids, pathogenic bacteria and other toxins from drinking water were developed using the traditional slip casting process. The locally produced filter has the advantage of low cost due to the usage of locally available raw materials, labour and expertise.

Furthermore, the project provides opportunities for local financing and innovation. The product was tested using water contaminated with high concentrations of selected bacterial cultures as well as with water from local polluted streams. The ceramic filter was found to be highly effective in removing the bacteria and suspended solids from the contaminated water. With correct cleaning and basic maintenance, this filter can effectively provide clean drinking water for rural families affected by polluted surface water sources. This could provide a low-cost solution for the more than 250 million people without access to clean drinking water in Africa.

Identifying requirements for targeted risk communication in prevention of dengue transmission

February 26, 2013 · 0 comments

Identifying requirements for targeted risk communication in prevention of dengue transmission in vulnerable areas, Mawlamyaing, Myanmar. Dengue Bulletin, Vol 36, 2012.

Pe Thet Zaw, et al.

This cross-sectional study focused on the largest periurban ward of Mawlamyaing Township in Myanmar to identify the requirements for targeted risk communication in the prevention of dengue transmission in vulnerable areas. During May 2011, 200 structured interviews of householders and six in-depth interviews of health personnel and ward administrators were conducted. Most of the respondents lived in wooden houses (145/200, 73%). Only 18% of the respondents had high school and higher education. Two thirds of the households had children under 15 years of age, and 8% reported hospitalization for dengue infection in the past one year. Only 30% (60/200) knew that dengue could occur all the year round.

The majority acknowledged that dengue was preventable. However, their mean score for five specific preventive measures was 1.8 ± 0.8. The mean risk perception scores in chances of reinfection, and in severity, were 5.7 ± 2.2 and 6.0 ± 2.5 respectively. They stored rainwater mostly outdoors in cement tanks and in ceramic jars (52/102, 51%). They were unable to clean these containers within 7 days, and they did not change water regularly. Only 42% of cement tanks and 67% of ceramic jars had complete covering. Nearly 81% of the households had a few to abundant water-retainable discarded materials in their compounds. In-depth interviews revealed the need to strengthen advocacy for more community engagement in the removal of potential dengue vector breeding sites.

In conclusion, extensive rainwater storage in key containers without adequate management and improper environmental management may lead to increased dengue vector breeding sites. The householders’ low knowledge scores in preventive measures, and their low-risk perceptions towards reinfection may aggravate the situation. Greater emphasis should be on multisectoral collaboration and coordination to use advocacy as the best tool for risk communication in order to motivate community engagement. This will complement effective and sustained integrated vector management measures in vulnerable areas

An assessment of long-term biosand filter use and sustainability in the Artibonite Valley near Deschapelles, Haiti.

February 22, 2013 · 0 comments

An assessment of long-term biosand filter use and sustainability in the Artibonite Valley near Deschapelles, Haiti. Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development Vol 3 No 1 pp 51–60, 2013 doi:10.2166/washdev.2013.09

Andrew J. Sisson,  et al

A non-randomized assessment of long-term biosand filter (BSF) use and sustainability in the Artibonite Valley near Deschapelles, Haiti was conducted during March, 2011. Of the 55 BSFs visited, 47% were no longer in use. Filter lifespan ranged from <1 year to systems still in use after 12 years. Interviews with BSF owners revealed problems related to intermittent filter use due to travel for employment or personal matters; broken or missing filter parts; and fears that the filter would not be effective against cholera. In addition, 17 BSF field studies were reviewed to identify common issues impacting usage.

Culturally appropriate technologies and education materials explaining proper maintenance and operation are essential for improved filter performance and sustainability. For Haiti, education materials should be provided in Creole and French and should include, (1) diagrams and descriptions of how the BSF works, (2) how to troubleshoot common problems, (3) how to properly maintain filters, and (4) a contact in case of questions. Operational problems can be minimized by providing long-term technical support, periodic water quality monitoring, and maintenance assistance for filter users.

Simple filtration and low-temperature sterilization of drinking water

February 22, 2013 · 0 comments

Simple filtration and low-temperature sterilization of drinking water. CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 104, NO. 4, 25 FEBRUARY 2013

Nandini Nimbkar, et al

Waterborne infectious diseases are transmitted primarily through contamination of the water sources with excreta of humans and animals. The water treatment technologies available are fairly costly and not sustainable. Solar energy can be used effectively for sterilizing drinking water during clear and partially cloudy days. However, during mostly cloudy days the temperatures required may not be reached. A combination of traditional cotton-sari filtration and heating of water to simulate a solar boiler was evaluated as a water sterilization treatment.

Experimental data showed that filtration of raw water through fourlayered cotton-sari cloth (250 μm) reduced the coliform count and further heating to sub-boiling temperatures (55–60°C) for less than an hour resulted in
complete inactivation of coliforms. The use of cloth filtration and low-temperature solar sterilization can be an effective, feasible and environmentally sustainable technique of disinfection to obtain clean drinking water.

Water Safety and Inequality in Access to Drinking-water between Rich and Poor Households

February 22, 2013 · 0 comments

Water Safety and Inequality in Access to Drinking-water between Rich and Poor Households. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2013, 47 (3), pp 1222–1230.

Hong Yang *†, Robert Bain ‡, Jamie Bartram §, Stephen Gundry ‡, Steve Pedley , and James Wright †
† Geography and Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, U.K.
‡ Water and Health Research Centre, Merchant Venturers Building, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1UB, U.K.
§ The Water Institute, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
Robens Centre for Public and Environmental Health, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, U.K.

While water and sanitation are now recognized as a human right by the United Nations, monitoring inequality in safe water access poses challenges. This study uses survey data to calculate household socio-economic-status (SES) indices in seven countries where national drinking-water quality surveys are available. These are used to assess inequalities in access as indicated by type of improved water source, use of safe water, and a combination of these.

In Bangladesh, arsenic exposure through drinking-water is not significantly related to SES (p = 0.06) among households using tubewells, whereas in Peru, chlorine residual in piped systems varies significantly with SES (p < 0.0001). In Ethiopia, Nicaragua, and Nigeria, many poor households access nonpiped improved sources, which may provide unsafe water, resulting in greater inequality of access to “safe” water compared to “improved” water sources.

Concentration indices increased from 0.08 to 0.15, 0.10 to 0.14, and 0.24 to 0.26, respectively, in these countries. There was minimal difference in Jordan and Tajikistan. Although the results are likely to be underestimates as they exclude individual-level inequalities, they show that use of a binary “improved”/”unimproved” categorization masks substantial inequalities. Future international monitoring programmes should take account of inequality in access and safety.

Practical Guidance for Measuring Handwashing Behavior: 2013 Update

February 19, 2013 · 0 comments

Practical Guidance for Measuring Handwashing Behavior: 2013 Update.

Pavani Ra, Water and Sanitation Program

Excerpts from the Executive Summary:

Self-reports via questionnaire are the easiest way to measure handwashing. Several studies have shown a relationship between self-reported handwashing behavior and disease risk. But, individuals often report better handwashing behavior than they display during observation. This exaggeration of true behavior may result from a perceived high social desirability of handwashing. Questionnaires remain an important source of information about handwashing knowledge and other determinants of handwashing behavior.

Studies with minimal funding should consider carrying out structured observations in a small sample of households, primarily to assess change in behaviors targeted by the handwashing intervention. Rapid observations are the most efficient source of household-level handwashing information. Rapid observations are markers for actual behavior. Self-reports may be used to measure knowledge and other possible determinants of handwashing behavior. Minimally funded studies that need affordable yet reliable methods to monitor handwashing behavior may warrant an investment in sample size estimates by a statistician or epidemiologist. These investments can frequently pay for themselves, as sample needs are frequently much lower than expected.

Application of Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment to analyze the public health risk from poor drinking water

February 19, 2013 · 1 comment

Sci Total Environ. 2013 Feb 14;449C:134-142. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.01.048.

Application of Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment to analyze the public health risk from poor drinking water quality in a low income area in Accra, Ghana.

Machdar E, van der Steen NP, Raschid-Sally L, Lens PN. Department of Environmental Engineering and Water Technology, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands; Urban Community Based Total Sanitation Program, Cipta Cara Padu Foundation, Jl. Hang Lekir X No.18 Kebayoran Baru, Jakarta Selatan 12120, Indonesia. Electronic address: e.chairati@ccp-indonesia.org.

In Accra, Ghana, a majority of inhabitants lives in over-crowded areas with limited access to piped water supply, which is often also intermittent. This study assessed in a densely populated area the risk from microbial contamination of various sources of drinking water, by conducting a Quantitative Microbiological Risk Assessment (QMRA) to estimate the risk to human health from microorganism exposure and dose-response relationships. Furthermore the cost-effectiveness in reducing the disease burden through targeted interventions was evaluated.

Five risk pathways for drinking water were identified through a survey (110 families), namely household storage, private yard taps, communal taps, communal wells and water sachets. Samples from each source were analyzed for Escherichia coli and Ascaris contamination. Published ratios between E. coli and other pathogens were used for the QMRA and disease burden calculations. The major part of the burden of disease originated from E. coli O157:H7 (78%) and the least important contributor was Cryptosporidium (0.01%). Other pathogens contributed 16% (Campylobacter), 5% (Rotavirus) and 0.3% (Ascaris).

The sum of the disease burden of these pathogens was 0.5DALYs per person per year, which is much higher than the WHO reference level. The major contamination pathway was found to be household storage. Disinfection of water at household level was the most cost-effective intervention (<5USD/DALY-averted) together with hygiene education. Water supply network improvements were significantly less cost-effective.

Exploring the gap between hand washing knowledge and practices in Bangladesh

February 8, 2013 · 0 comments

Exploring the gap between hand washing knowledge and practices in Bangladesh: a cross-sectional comparative study. BMC Public Health 2013, 13:89.

Sifat E Rabbi, et al.

Background: Hand washing is considered as one of the most effective hygiene promotion activities for public health in developing countries. This study compared hand washing knowledge and practices in BRAC’s water; sanitation and hygiene (WASH) programme areas over time.

Methods: This study is a cross-sectional comparative study between baseline (2006), midline (2009) and end-line (2011) surveys in 50 sub-districts from the first phase of the programme. Thirty thousand households from 50 sub-districts were selected in two steps: i) 30 villages were selected from each sub-district by cluster sampling, and ii) 20 households were chosen systematically from each village. The matched households were considered (26,404 in each survey) for analysis. Data were collected from households through face-to-face interview using a pre-tested questionnaire. Respondents were the adult female members of the same households, who had knowledge of day-to-day household activities related to water, sanitation and hygiene.

Results: A gap between perception and practice of proper hand washing practices with soap was identified in the study areas. Hand washing practice with soap before eating was much lower than after defecation. In baseline data, 8% reported to wash their hands with soap which significantly increased to 22% in end line. Hand washing knowledge and practices before cooking food, before serving food and while handling babies is considerably limited than other critical times. A multivariate analysis shows that socio-economic factors including education of household head and respondent, water availability and access to media have strong positive association with hand washing with soap.

Conclusion: Gap between knowledge and practice still persists in hand washing practices. Long term and extensive initiatives can aware people about the effectiveness of hand washing.

Impact of Water-Vending Kiosks and Hygiene Education on Household Drinking Water Quality in Rural Ghana

February 8, 2013 · 0 comments

Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2013 Feb 4.

Impact of Water-Vending Kiosks and Hygiene Education on Household Drinking Water Quality in Rural Ghana.

Opryszko MC, Guo Y, Macdonald L, Macdonald L, Kiihl S, Schwab KJ.
Departments of Environmental Health Sciences and Biostatistics, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering, Johns Hopkins University Whiting School of Engineering, Baltimore, Maryland.

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Innovative solutions are essential to improving global access to potable water for nearly 1 billion people. This study presents an independent investigation of one alternative by examining for-profit water-vending kiosks, WaterHealth Centers (WHCs), in rural Ghana to determine their association with household drinking water quality. WHCs’ design includes surface water treatment using filtration and ultraviolet light disinfection along with community-based hygiene education.

Analyses of water samples for Escherichia coli and household surveys from 49 households across five villages collected one time per year for 3 years indicate that households using WHCs had improved water quality compared with households using untreated surface water (adjusted incidence rate ratio = 0.07, 95% confidence interval = 0.02, 0.21).

However, only 38% of households used WHCs by the third year, and 60% of those households had E. coli in their water. Recontamination during water transport and storage is an obstacle to maintaining WHC-vended water quality.

Manufacture of a low-cost ceramic microporous filter for the elimination of microorganisms causing common diseases

February 7, 2013 · 0 comments

Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development Vol 3 No 1 pp 42–50, 2013 doi:10.2166/washdev.2013.110

Manufacture of a low-cost ceramic microporous filter for the elimination of microorganisms causing common diseases

J. J. Simonis and A. K. Basson
Department of Hydrology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, P Bag X1001, KwaDlangezwa, 3886, South Africa E-mail: jsimonis@pan.uzulu.ac.za
Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa

Africa is one of the most water-scarce continents on earth and the lack of potable water is responsible for the death of approximately 4,900 children every day. An effective way of making sure that water is of good quality is by decontaminating it by means of a household ceramic water filter. The low-cost water filters suitable for the removal of suspended solids, pathogenic bacteria and other toxins from drinking water were developed using the traditional slip casting process. The locally produced filter has the advantage of low cost due to the usage of locally available raw materials, labour and expertise.

Furthermore, the project provides opportunities for local financing and innovation. The product was tested using water contaminated with high concentrations of selected bacterial cultures as well as with water from local polluted streams. The ceramic filter was found to be highly effective in removing the bacteria and suspended solids from the contaminated water. With correct cleaning and basic maintenance, this filter can effectively provide clean drinking water for rural families affected by polluted surface water sources. This could provide a low-cost solution for the more than 250 million people without access to clean drinking water in Africa.

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